History Unplugged Podcast

Most of us only know Thomas Paine for one thing: writing Common Sense in 1776, which helped kickstart the Revolution by selling hundreds of thousands of copies. But he was far more than a writer. Paine actively served with George Washington's army during its darkest days and then used his pen to advocate for global freedom in both the French Revolution and against organized religion. His revolutionary fervor spanned the globe, leading him to champion the French Revolution with Rights of Man and challenge religious orthodoxy in The Age of Reason / Paine's later involvement with the French Revolution, his Enlightenment opinions, and his unorthodox view of religion plunged his reputation into a controversy that continues to this day. Today's guest is Jack Kelly, author of "Tom Paine's War: The Words That Rallied a Nation and the Founder for Our Time." We look at how Paine shaped the war. He convinced the colonies that war should grow from a reform movement to a full revolution: The entire British system of hereditary monarchy and aristocratic rule was a form of tyranny, making the case that separation from Great Britain the only logical course for America. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Fad workouts have been with us for decades, but they go back much further than we realize. Long before CrossFit, Zumba, P90X, Tae Box, Jazzercise or Jack LaLanne, we had 19th century strongmen. These mustachioed showmen were the first global fitness influencers. They hauled trunks of weights onto steamships, toured the world, then sold exercise equipment through the mail. The most famous was Eugene Sandow, who broke chains, and created with his own body a "manned cavalry bridge" where he would lie down while men, horses, and a carriage were driven over his body. He even fought a lion in front of an auditorium and won, although the lion was almost definitely sedated. Today's guest is Connor Heffernan, author of "When Fitness Went Global: The Rise of Physical Culture in the Nineteenth Century." In this episode, we discuss: Ancient Egyptians were basically doing CrossFit thousands of years ago. They trained with swinging sandbags that look exactly like modern kettlebell flows. One of the first exercise practices to experience globalization was Indian club-swinging. Indian club-swinging, originating from the heavy training clubs used by Indian wrestlers and soldiers for centuries, was observed and adopted by British military officers stationed in India during the early 1800s. Early diet culture was a carnival of quack science. Victorian fitness magazines were filled with miracle tonics, starvation cures and pseudoscientific meal plans. Many of our "new" diet trends are rebranded versions of schemes first marketed with sepia portraits and dubious testimonials. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

In the eight decades since the United States deployed the most destructive weapon ever used, conventional wisdom has held that American leaders were faced with a difficult choice: Invade Japan, which would have cost millions of Japanese and Allied lives in bloody combat or use the fearsome atom bomb in the hopes of convincing the Japanese emperor to surrender. President Truman-in what many have come to regard as an immoral decision-ordered the military to drop the bomb. Today's guest is Alex Wellerstein, author of The Most Awful Responsibility: Truman and the Secret Struggle for Control of the Atomic Age . Wellerstein offers a more complex and nuanced portrayal of Truman, showing a president entangled in secrecy, rushing against time, and operating with limited information. Contrary to the long-held belief that Truman was the decisive force behind the bombings, this book reveals how he was largely unacquainted with the specifics of Hiroshima and Nagasaki's targeting until after the fact. Wellerstein explains how there was no formal decision to use the bomb, nor did President Truman likely know that Hiroshima or Nagasaki were heavily populated cities. Once the bombs were dropped, Truman began a years-long struggle for control of the awesome power of atomic weapons, the ramifications of which are still felt today. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

National pride often comes from shared heritage-like a common language or ethnic background. Religious Nationalism can be seen in historical Russia, where being part of the Orthodox Church was considered key to being Russian, even if you spoke a different language, whereas Ethnic Nationalism is like modern Mongolia, where having the same Mongol background is what counts as national identity, even if people follow different faiths.-but for the small nation of Uruguay, that feeling of unity was forged not in a parliament, but on a soccer pitch. When the Uruguayan national team, La Celeste , stunned the world by winning the 1924 Paris Olympics, it was more than just a sports victory. That triumph created a profound, shared, and globally recognized national identity, transforming the soccer team into a powerful symbol that helped bond the country together in a way politics had struggled to achieve. Soccer's ability to literally bring nations into existence has only grown with the growth and spread of the World Cup. Since 1930, the World Cup has become a truly global obsession. It is the most watched sporting event on the planet, and 211 teams competed to make it into the 2022 tournament. From its inception, it has also been a vehicle for far more than soccer. A tool for self-mythologizing and influence-peddling, The World Cup has played a crucial role in nation-building, and continues to, as countries negotiate their positions in a globalized world. Today's guest is Jonathan Wilson, author of "The Power and the Glory: A History of the World Cup." We look at history of the matches and goals, the tales of scandal and triumph, the haggling and skulduggery of the bidding process, and the political and cultural tides behind every tournament. Jonathan Wilson details not merely what happened but why, based on fresh interviews and meticulous research. The book is as much about the legends of the sport, from Pelé to Messi, as it is about the nations that made them, from Mussolini's Italy to partitioned Germany to controversy-ridden Qatar. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

The wind-powered sawmill was invented around 1592 in the Netherlands, immediately transforming the nature of labor and industry. This mechanical marvel replaced slow, muscle-powered sawyers, allowing timber to be cut for shipbuilding and construction up to 30 times faster than manual labor, radically lowering the cost of wood products. It used a crankshaft to convert the windmill's rotating motion into the linear, up-and-down movement required for sawing wood, essentially creating an early, powerful assembly line factory. This mechanization allowed for unprecedented, rapid timber production, which quickly made the Dutch rich and enabled the massive expansion of their global fleet and construction projects. This invention, whose significance has been overlooked, has been researched by today's guest, Jaime Davila, author of "Forgotten: How One Man Unlocked the Modern World." See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

We have paper money today because it functioned as an IOU, certifying that the holder could redeem it for an equivalent amount of physical gold or silver from the bank's vault. That's where the English pound got its name as it matched a specific weight of gold (or silver). This was the gold standard, and this is how banks operated for centuries. But it was largely abandoned after World War I, when governments prevented the withdrawal of gold by suspending the convertibility of their paper money into gold to conserve national gold reserves for purchasing vital war supplies and to allow central banks to print money for financing massive military expenditures. Governments abandoned linking their money to anything at all, giving central banks full control over the money supply. Printing money has led to inflation, national debt, and financial instability, which ultimately fueled the creation of cryptocurrency like Bitcoin as a decentralized, mathematically-scarce alternative. What if things hadn't happened this way? What if the gold standard survived the Great War? Today's guest, Saifedean Ammous , imagines this scenario in his new book The Gold Standard: An Alternate Economic History of the 20th Century." The story begins with a fictional divergence in 1911: French aviation pioneer Louis Blériot partners with the Wright brothers to create the Blériot Transport Corporation (BTC), an airplane-based, peer-to-peer gold-settlement network. This innovative system quickly becomes a secure alternative to central banks. When World War I starts, the BTC offers Europeans a way to export their wealth to neutral countries, escaping central bank war inflation. This triggers a global financial panic in September 1915, bankrupting the world's central banks, abruptly ending the war, and strangling fiat money in its cradle. With the collapse of central banking and the establishment of a free-market, decentralized gold standard, a radically different 20th century unfolds. Hard-money savings become plentiful and cheap, accelerating technological progress, increasing energy production, and fostering a world of appreciating money and declining prices. Without the ability to print money to fund expansive projects, governments become more accountable, transforming into mere service providers whose citizens expect better service at a lower cost. This thought-provoking narrative suggests that the absence of central bank financing could have prevented major 20th-century conflicts, eliminated chronic inflation, and ushered in a "Century of Affluence" based on lower time preference, long-term investment, and voluntary governance. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Nearly a century of Cold War tensions between the United States and Russia hide the incredibly close friendship that the two nations enjoyed before this period. From America's colonial founding in the 1600s to the eve of World War One, the two distant nations relied on each other in a surprising number of ways. Each country was searching for allies on the world stage, and this culminated in a "blueprint for friendship" during the 1860s and 1870s, spurred by mutual conversations around the abolition of slavery and serfdom. However, this amicable distance dissolved following the Russo-Japanese War, which introduced cycles of mutual stereotyping and a damaging "war of images," where Americans saw Russian authoritarianism and Russians saw US imperialism and racism. Despite these emerging tensions, the relationship continued its characteristic oscillation, with both countries drawing inspiration from one another, leading to a brief "wartime honeymoon" at the start of World War I. To discuss this forgotten chapter in Russian-American history is today's guest, Victoria Zhuravleva, one of the authors of "Distant Friends and Intimate Enemies: A History of American-Russian Relations." See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

One of the worst nautical disasters in recent American history is the sinking of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald. On November 10, 1975, the "storm of the century" threw 100 mile-per-hour winds and 50-foot waves on Lake Superior. The ship found itself at the worst possible place, at the worst possible time. When she sank, she took all 29 men onboard down with her, leaving the tragedy shrouded in mystery for a half century. The sinking of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald is so strange because the ship was exceptionally large and strong, and would normally be able to shrug off storms like this. At 75 feet wide and 729 feet long, the Fitzgerald was at the time of her launch the largest ship on the lakes, and she repeatedly broke her own records for the largest loads, the fastest runs, and the biggest season hauls throughout her career. She was a champion heavyweight, sprinter, and workhorse, all in one. To make the sinking stranger, she suddenly disappeared in a bad storm on Lake Superior without sending any distress calls despite having a massive modern radio system. The most widely accepted theories for the disaster include the ship hitting a shoal, suffering a structural failure like a broken back, or being overwhelmed by massive "three sisters" rogue waves. However, some less common and conspiracy-like theories suggest the crew did not properly close the hatch covers, the ship was actually split by a UFO, or that it was the victim of a secret Coast Guard experiment gone wrong. Todays' guest is John Bacon, author of "The Gales of November: The Untold Story of the Edmund Fitzgerald." We explore the vital role Great Lakes shipping played in America's economic boom, the uncommon lives the sailors led, the sinking's most likely causes, and the aftermath for those left behind. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Over the course of World War II, Germany's submariners sank over three thousand Allied ships, nearly three-quarters of Allied shipping losses in all theaters of the war. Winston Churchill famously declared the only thing that truly frightened him during World War II was the U-boat threat. But the treat was more imagined than real. The actual capability of the German Navy was somewhat limited. Some historians think that the Germans would have been better off in WWII if they had built no navy at all and devoted those resources to the army and the Luftwaffe. In the process the submariners endured horrific conditions and suffered a 75 percent death rate, the highest of any arm of service in the conflict. The campaign began with daring, high-profile successes that fostered a dangerous overconfidence, most notably the sinking of the HMS Royal Oak in 1939 by U-47, which killed 835 British crewmen. Yet, despite these early victories-when the U-boat wolfpacks inflicted devastating losses on weakly defended Allied convoys-the force was never able to maintain the scale needed for a knock-out blow. By the time Germany had sufficient numbers, the industrial and military might of the United States, coupled with increasingly effective Allied countermeasures, had already passed the U-boat's moment of maximum threat. As the war progressed, the elite, superbly trained pre-war crews were wiped out and replaced by those with less training, leading to a steady deterioration in effectiveness. Today's guest is Roger Moorhouse, author of "Wolfpack: Inside Hitler's U-Boat War." We look at how Germany's U-boat campaign challenged British naval supremacy and brought international trade to its knees. We follow the story of these U-Boat crews from the enthusiasm of the war's early days, buoyed with optimism about their cause, through the challenges of the Allied counterthreat, to the final horrors of enemy capture and death in the depths. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

America's growth from a rugged frontier nation to the globe's industrial superpower in the space of 100 years can be explained by one word: coal. Before coal dominance, American buildings were defined by height limits imposed by stonework. The tallest building in the 1830s was Baltimore's 235-foot tall Phoenix Shot Tower. Transportation also worked poorly without coal. The early wood-fired 4-4-0 locomotives struggled with top freight speeds around 15 mph and pulling trains of approximately 450 tons. The transition to coal and cheap steel enabled the steel-supported 555-foot Washington Monument and allowed massive coal-fired trains to achieve express passenger speeds up to 100+ mph and haul loads over 4,000 tons. For a century the entire world was dependent on coal. It powered railroads, built urban skylines, and provided warmth, light, and power for families rich and poor. Although the American economy soared, society unknowingly suffered from coal's debilitating health and environmental impacts. Skies were so dirty that on some days, visibility was limited to a few feet. Coal miners frequently died from cave-ins, explosions, or contracting black lung. Towns like Centralia in Illinois were fundamentally destroyed by an underground fire started in 1962 that continues to burn. Today's guest is Bob Wyss, author of "Black Gold: The Rise, Reign, and Fall of American Coal." We look at a range of figures that were part of coal's story, from a largely unknown and unrecognized Pennsylvanian inventor who helped spark the Industrial Revolution to a prominent society clubwoman who clashed with the powerful coal forces in Utah that were fouling the air and sickening residents. It also includes clashes between powerful tycoons, coal miners, and the American public. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

For almost two centuries, Ancient Athens-the most successful democracy in history-selected citizens by lottery to fill government positions. Athens adopted sortition-a random lottery system-to select most public officials and the members of the Council of 500, a reform pioneered in 508 BC to break aristocratic control and distribute power equally among ordinary citizens. Some say it worked much better than the Assembly of Athens. In 406 BC, the Assembly rashly voted to execute all six victorious generals following a victory over Sparta because a storm prevented them from recovering the bodies of those who were lost at sea during a terrible storm. The Council of 500 later intervened by carefully reviewing the case, exposing procedural illegalities, and helping restore calmer judgment that tempered the Assembly's impulsive decision. This governing system soon disappeared from the earth. The Council of 500 was disbanded in 322 BC when Macedonian forces crushed Athens' democracy. Rome never adopted it because its republican system favored election of magistrates and a powerful Senate of lifelong aristocrats, viewing random selection as too chaotic and unfit for a large, conquest-driven state. Athens' ancient sortition has made a modern comeback in America through randomly selected jury trials for fair justice and in new "citizens' assemblies"-which have re-emerged from Oregon to France--where ordinary people are lottery-picked to deliberate and recommend policy. Today's guest is Terry Bourcious, author of "Democracy Without Politicians." He is a former politician from Vermont, and he argues we should return to the Athenian model, adapted for modern governance through "multi-body sortition," where randomly selected citizen bodies, with expert staff, would draft legislation, set agendas, review proposals, and make final decisions. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

The "Madman Theory" was Richard Nixon's foreign policy strategy during the Vietnam War era, where he deliberately cultivated an image of being unpredictable and irrational-hinting he might escalate to nuclear extremes-to intimidate adversaries like North Vietnam and the Soviet Union into concessions. Nixon instructed aides like Henry Kissinger to spread rumors that he was volatile enough to "go crazy" and use drastic measures, hoping fear of his supposed madness would deter aggression and force negotiations without actual escalation. Nixon's Madman Theory was relatively ineffective in coercing North Vietnam because Hanoi correctly gambled that the U.S. would not use nuclear force against a non-nuclear state-like North Vietnam-due to the massive domestic and international backlash, the high risk of Soviet/Chinese escalation, and the global nuclear taboo. But what if Nixon had used it against an actual nuclear power? That could have happened if history had only played out a little differently. JFK won his presidential election in 1960 against Nixon by a few thousand votes in key counties, and many suspected voter fraud. What if Nixon had won? And what if he used the Madman Doctrine against the Soviets in the Cuban Missile Crisis? In today's episode, were' joined by Harvy Simon, who wrote a book of alternate history called "The Madman Theory" that imagines exactly that scenario. The book focuses on how President Nixon handles the Cuban Missile Crisis. True to the "Madman" strategy, Nixon maneuvers the U.S., the Soviet Union, and the world to the brink of nuclear war, believing his reputation for unpredictability will force Nikita Khrushchev to back down. We explore the dangers of deliberately appearing irrational and unstable to an adversary-especially in the nuclear age-significantly increases the risk of miscalculation, accidental escalation, or the adversary failing to understand the bluff, thereby triggering an actual catastrophic conflict. Harvey Simon --- I'm the author of The Madman Theory, which posits that Richard Nixon won the 1960 election against Kennedy. In particular, it focuses on the Cuban missile crisis, and what would have happened differently with Nixon as president. My book is being reissued with a newly added foreword examining how Nixon's madman theory has been taken up by President Trump. If you'd be interested in a show about what would likely have happened during the Cuban Missile Crisis if Kennedy hadn't won--some scholars doubt the outcome was legitimate--I'd be happy to talk with you about my analysis, and, more generally, how counterfactuals can improve our understanding of history. I'm a former national security analyst with Harvard University's Kennedy School of Government and have also worked as a journalist. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

The famous street artist Banksy shocked the art world in 2018 when his painting, Girl with Balloon , partially shredded itself moments after selling it for over a million dollars. at a Sotheby's auction in London. Banksy had secretly built a mechanical shredder into the painting's ornate frame, turning the destruction into a piece of performance art which was later authenticated and renamed Love Is in the Bin . He did this to make a statement about the art market's hyper-commercialization. One of the most famous and influential philosophers of the ancient world enjoyed doing similar types of shocking stunts to make his point in the most memorable way possible. Diogenes the Cynic had a reputation for eccentricity. He lived in a large clay wine jar and owned almost nothing, a demonstration that true freedom and happiness come from self-sufficiency. He defecated in public, and when criticized, he asked why it was acceptable to eat there but not to perform other natural acts, illustrating that social shame is arbitrary and not rooted in nature or reason. Since his death in 323 BC, devoted followers made him and his ideas famous the world over. But some modern philosophers like Friedrich Hegel thought of him as just a shock jock. To him, Diogenes had a way of life based on simple, isolated maxims and provocative anecdotes-like those of a folk figure-rather than a fully developed, systematic philosophical system that truly captured the evolving spirit of reason in history. Today's guest is Inger Kuin, author of "Diogenes: The Rebellious Life and Revolutionary Philosophy of the Original Cynic." We look at this iconoclastic philosopher whose brash and free-thinking vision of life ended up inspiring the philosophy of Stoicism. His philosophy stresses the importance of living here and now and not concerning ourselves with things out of our control. Diogenes also stands apart as history's first recorded critic of slavery, a lone voice of his time that powerfully influenced future thinkers, from Epictetus to future abolitionists. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

The greatest energy source for civilization before the steam engine was wind. It powered the global economy in the Age of Sail. Wind-powered sail ships made global shipping fast and cheap by harnessing free, reliable ocean winds to propel large cargo loads over vast distances without needing fuel or frequent stops. It also powered windmills, the factories of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Windmills allowed for abundant bread by milling flour by turning heavy grindstones with wind-driven sails. They also powered trip hammers to forge iron and steel by lifting and dropping massive weights. We can credit them as well for pumped water, sawed timber, and processed oils, spices, and paper. Wind is one of most elemental yet overlooked forces shaping our world today, and it is at the center of the human story. Many times it changed history - such as "Protestant Wind" saving England from the Spanish Armada, kamikaze winds halting the Mongol invasions of Japan, and easterlies carrying Chernobyl's fallout. Wind also powers massive turbines today, but there was a forgotten moment in the 1880s when we could've chosen wind power over fossil fuels. It even creates certain types of civilizations. Some historians believe the cleverest and most civilized people lived in places where weather was varied and posed constant challenges. Today's guest is Simon Winchester, author of "The Breath of the Gods: The History and Future of the Wind." We look at how wind-life‐giving and destructive, chaotic and harnessable - has shaped civilization from antiquity to today. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Maps have always had problems. Five hundred years ago, maps were wildly inaccurate simply because cartographers were drawing the edge of the known world, limited by slow ships and nonexistent satellite data, resulting in continents that were too large, too small, or entirely misplaced. All of those problems have been solved thanks to new technology, but now there are new ones. Even though we know the exact dimensions of Earth, our maps are still "wrong" because we force a three-dimensional globe onto a flat surface, leading to mathematical distortions like the Mercator projection, which wildly exaggerates the size of landmasses near the poles. One map that tries to correct the Mercator projection's distortion of landmass sizes is the Gall-Peters projection, but to achieve this size accuracy, it severely stretches and distorts shapes, particularly near the poles, making Alaska look like a whirlpool or expanding pinwheel. To make it even more confusing, there are maps that were deliberately tweaked to hide government secrets or those drawn with junk data just to trick an enemy into giving up territory. But for today's guests, Jay Foreman and Mark Cooper-Jones, they enjoy these sort of cartographic oddities. They are the authors of "This Way Up: When Maps Go Wrong and Why it Matters." We discuss all sorts of maps that went wrong-from the infamous Mountains of Kong-a completely made-up mountain range that ran East-West across the entire African continent--to colonial maps with mathematically impossible borders and US states with fake cities. We also discuss The frequent omissions of New Zealand on maps that use the Mercator projection Maps that will land you in prison depending on which countries claim certain territories Cold War-era Soviet paranoia that falsified virtually all maps for decades on the direct orders of secret police See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

In the 1800s, it seemed like mathematics was a solved problem. The paradoxes in the field were resolved, and even areas like advanced calculus could be taught consistently and reliably at any school. It was clearly understandable in a way that abstract fields like philosophy weren't, and it was on its way to solving humanity's problems. Mathematical work on electromagnetism made modern electrical engineering and power systems possible. New research in algebra created the logical basis for future computer science and digital circuits. But then new problems appeared. In the early 20th century, mathematicians made discoveries that showed them enough to know how little they really knew. Bertrand Russell showed that at its edges, math fell apart. It couldn't fully define itself on its own terms without becoming logically inconsistent. He gave the analogy of a small-town barber who shaves everyone who doesn't shave himself; the question is, who shaves the barber-if he shaves himself, he breaks the rule, but if he doesn't shave himself, he must, by the rule, shave himself? In today's episode, I'm speaking to Jason Bardi, author of The Great Math War: How Three Brilliant Minds Fought for the Foundations of Mathematics and we explore the story of three competing efforts by mathematicians to resolve this crisis. What do you do if math, the most logical of all sciences, becomes illogical at a certain point? Bertrand Russell thought the problem could be solved with even more logic, we just hadn't tried hard enough. David Hilbert thought redemption lay in accepting mathematics as a formal game of arbitrary rules, no different from the moves and pieces in chess. And L. E. J. Brouwer argued math is entirely rooted in human intuition-and that math is not based on logic but rather logic is based on math. Set against the backdrop of one of the most turbulent periods of European history (from the late 19th century through World War I, the 1920s, the Great Depression, and the early days of World War II), we look at what happens when rock-solid truths don't seem so rock solid anymore. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

The Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, known as the "shot heard round the world," marked the first military engagements of the American Revolution. Ralph Waldo Emerson named it that because it launched revolutionary movements in Europe and beyond, marking it as a key moment in the fight for liberty and self-governance. But this moment was global in more ways than inspiring other nations. The quest for independence by the 13 North American colonies against British rule rapidly escalated into a worldwide conflict. The Patriots forged alliances with Britain's key adversaries-France, Spain, and the Netherlands-securing covert arms supplies initially, which evolved into open warfare by 1779. French and Spanish naval campaigns in the Caribbean diverted British forces from North America to defend valuable sugar colonies, while American privateers disrupted British trade, bolstering the rebel economy. All of this international involvement was promoted by the Founding Fathers, because the Declaration of Independence was translated into French, Spanish, Dutch, and other languages and distributed by them across Europe to garner sympathy and support from nations like France and the Netherlands. Spain's separate war against Britain in Florida and South America, alongside French efforts to spark uprisings in British-controlled India, further strained Britain's ability to quash the rebellion. Post-independence, the consequences rippled globally: Britain and Spain tightened their grip on remaining colonies, Native American tribes faced heightened land encroachments due to the loss of British protections, and enslaved African Americans who fought for Britain, lured by promises of freedom, were relocated to Nova Scotia and later Sierra Leone. To explore this new framework of the Revolutionary War is today's guest, Richard Bell, author of "The American Revolution and the Fate of the World." See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

The brain acts in strange ways during wartime. Even in active combat situations, when soldiers are one mistake away from death, many can't fire on their enemies because their brain is triggering compassion centers against other soldiers. Studies of World War II show that while soldiers were willing to risk death, only 15% to 20% fired their weapons in intense combat, indicating a reluctance to kill. That's why successful military leaders were able to motivate their soldiers with ideas of unfairness and justice, that their enemies weren't human to make them better at fighting and killing. All this goes to show that if you want to understand war, you have to understand how the brain makes sense of it. Does war make all of us retreat to our lizard brain and act on pure instinct - so the only way to win is pumping out manipulative propaganda to the masses and use modern technologies like AI and social media exploit the brain's cognitive vulnerabilities? Well, many nations like Russia and China are already using these to their advantage. Or can we bring higher thinking to the matter? Is a researcher like Robert Sapolsky right when he argues that we can stop wars by persuading enough people that it is bad and pointless. Today's guest is Nicholas Wright, author of "Warhead: How the Brain Shapes War and War Shapes the Brain." He's a neuroscientist and advisor to the Pentagon. We explore how our brains respond under pressure and how these instincts can shape everything from battlefield outcomes to boardroom decisions. He argues that while conflict is inevitable, it's not unmanageable - if we understand how the brain drives fear, trust, aggression, and judgment. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

William F. Buckley Jr., the charismatic intellectual who defined modern American conservatism, was famously skilled at forging friendships across the ideological divide, a talent that helped him both shape the political landscape and navigate public opinion. His capacity for personal charm allowed him to be a public extremist and a private moderate, keeping him in the good graces of the liberal elite, including figures like Senator George McGovern and activist Allard Lowenstein, even as he worked to advance his conservative agenda; however, this magnanimity had its limits, most famously with his true enemy, Gore Vidal. Today's guest is Josh Cohen, author of William F. Buckley Jr.'s Guide to Friendship in a Polarized Era , and we explore how this patrician gatekeeper of the right strategically used ideological "frenemies" and acquaintances, such as the surprising connection with Hugh Hefner, to legitimize his movement and advance his influence, culminating in the infamous, televised confrontation with Gore Vidal that exposed how even Buckley's renowned decorum shattered when his core beliefs were challenged. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

The Collapse of the Soviet Union was twice as devastating as the Great Depression for those who lived there. It immediately led to widespread economic chaos and a breakdown of public services, plunging millions into a difficult period where mere survival was the priority. As one Russian described, after hyperinflation wiped out their family's savings, "my parents still had the same 50,000 rubles... But by then, all they could afford to buy with it was a pair of winter boots for my mother." There was optimism that democracy could emerge, but thirty years after the collapse of the USSR, the victory over totalitarianism feels alarmingly short-lived, with the unresolved unraveling of the Soviet empire now directly fueling global crises like the war in Ukraine. The people currently in power in Russia, belonging to what some call the last Soviet generation--meaning they absorbed Soviet culture but not Soviet faith--carry a deep, cynical disbelief in democracy and human rights, demonstrating how the core structures of empire remain entrenched in the governing forces today. Today's guest is Mikhail Zygar, author of The Dark Side of the Earth: Russia's Short-Lived Victory Over Totalitarianism , and we explore his decade-long investigation, drawing on hundreds of never-before-public interviews with figures like Mikhail Gorbachev, the first leaders of post-Soviet republics, and democracy activists, to reveal how the USSR's demise was primarily driven by a collapse of faith in communist ideals, and we examine the parallel it creates for liberal democracy today. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

From Shakespeare's 'band of brothers' speech to its appearances in numerous films, Agincourt rightfully has a place among a handful of conflicts whose names are immediately recognized around the world. The Battle of Agincourt, fought in 1415, is famous for the decisive role of the English and Welsh longbowmen, who—despite being significantly outnumbered and exhausted—decimated the heavily armored French nobility with volleys of arrows. This unlikely victory was profoundly important because it not only paved the way for King Henry V to be named heir to the French throne via the Treaty of Troyes, but it also demonstrated the waning dominance of the medieval knight in warfare. Today’s guest is Michael Livingston, author of “Agincourt: Battle of the Scarred King.” We go back to the original sources, including the French battle plan that still survives today, to give a new interpretation, one that challenges the traditional site of the battlefield itself. The English victory at Agincourt on October 25, 1415, was a result of strategic brilliance, terrain advantage, and the devastating effectiveness of the longbow, combined with French tactical errors. Henry V’s smaller army, roughly 6,000-9,000 men (mostly longbowmen), faced a French force of 12,000-36,000, including heavily armored knights. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

J.P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, and Charles E. Mitchell are names that come to mind when thinking of the most prominent icons of wealth and influence during the Roaring Twenties. Yet the one figure who has escaped notice is an enigmatic banker by the name of Clarence Dillon. In the 1920s, as he rose in wealth and influence, Dillon became one of the original behind-the-scenes players in Hollywood, and his contact list included everyone from Thomas Edison to Charlie Chaplin and Joseph P. Kennedy to FDR. A revolutionary in finance, Clarence Dillon single-handedly created modern bankruptcy law, pioneered leveraged buyouts, invented junk bonds, and engineered some of the biggest mergers and acquisitions ever seen. His firm engineered the 1925 buyout of Dodge Brothers Company for $146 million in cash, then the largest such industrial transaction in history, which resulted in the company's merger with Chrysler Corporation in 1927 Today’s guest is William Loomis, author of “The Baron of Wall Street.” We look at Dillon and his life, which fills a void in how we view the wild excesses of the Roaring Twenties, and how we understand the increasingly complex nexus between Wall Street and political power in our own time. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

The American Indian leader Wakara was among the most influential and feared men in the nineteenth-century American West. He and his pan-tribal cavalry of horse thieves and slave traders dominated the Old Spanish Trail, the region’s most important overland route. They widened the trail and expanded its watering holes, reshaping the environmental and geographical boundaries of the region. They also exacted tribute from travelers passing along the trail and assisted the trail’s explorers with their mapmaking projects—projects that shaped the political and cultural boundaries of the West. What’s more, as the West’s greatest horse thief and horse trader as well as the region’s most prolific trader in enslaved Indians, Wakara supplied Spanish, Mexican, and Anglo-American settlers from Santa Fe to San Bernardino with the labor and horsepower that fueled empire and settler colonial expansion as well as fueled great changes to the West’s environmental landscape. Today’s guest is Max Mueller, author of of   Wakara’s America: The Life and Legacy of a Native Founder of the American West . We look at his complex and sometimes paradoxical story, revealing a man who both helped build the settler American West and defended Native sovereignty. Wakara was baptized a Mormon and allied with Mormon settlers against other Indians to seize large parts of modern-day Utah. Yet a pan-tribal uprising against the Mormons that now bears Wakara’s name stalled and even temporarily reversed colonial expansion. Through diplomacy and through violence, Wakara oversaw the establishment of settlements, built new trade routes, and helped create the boundaries that still define the region.  See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Rome began as a pagan, Latin-speaking city state in central Italy during the early Iron Age and ended as a Christian, Greek-speaking empire as the age of gunpowder dawned. Everything about it changed, except its Roman identity. This was due to a unique willingness among Romans to include new people as citizens, an openness to new ideas, and an unparalleled adaptability that enabled Romans to remake every aspect of their society in ways that made it stronger and more resilient. Romans, who believed that their city was originally settled by exiles and captives, found a balance between the embrace of new people and ideas and a conservative attachment to the core features that had traditionally defined Roman society. Roman history is a story of 80 generations of Romans who deftly challenged the rules governing their lives—and usually did so without overturning the institutions that made them safe and prosperous. In an age when people around the world are increasingly looking to charismatic leaders promising to scrap the rules governing modern states, Rome shows why states that want to endure should be repelled by the sudden, unpredictable jolts such characters provide. To explore this topic with us is today’s guest, Edward J. Watts, author of “The Romans:  A 2000-Year History .” Rather than collapse, Watts shows how Rome endured, evolved, and redefined itself for two thousand years—from the Punic Wars to the Crusades, and from Augustus to Constantine to Charlemagne. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Gunslinging, gold-panning, stagecoach robbing, whiskey guzzling – the myth and infamy of the American West is synonymous with its most famous town: Deadwood, South Dakota. The storied mining town sprang up in early 1876 and came raining down in ashes only three years later, destined to become food for the imagination and a nostalgic landmark that now brings in more than two and a half million visitors each year. Once described as “the most diabolical town on earth,” Deadwood was not merely a place where outlaws lurked, like Tombstone or Dodge City, but was itself an outlaw enterprise, not part of any U.S. territory or subject to U.S. laws or governance. This gave rise to the Western outlaw behavior Deadwood is known for, but it also bred a self-reliance and a spirit of cooperation unique on the frontier, and made it an exceptionally welcoming place for Americans traditionally excluded from mainstream society. Today’s guest is Peter Cozzens, author of “Deadwood: Gold, Guns, and Greed in the American West. We look at the town’s complex story in full (including the stories of some of the most famous names of Deadwood — Calamity Jane, Hickok, Bullock, and Swearingen — who were made popular by David Milch’s HBO series). One frontier town came to embody the best and worst of the West—a relic of humanity’s eternal quest to create order from chaos, a greater good from individual greed, and security from violence. See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.